Усе запісы з тэгамі: "ХАМАС"
Мусульманская грамадзянская супольнасць у гарадскіх грамадскіх прасторах: Глабалізацыя, Дыскурсіўныя зрухі, і грамадскія рухі
ХАМАС можа быць прыкладам
Кадэр Кадэр
Ад паўстанцкага руху да палітычнай партыі
Аластер Крук
Меркаванне многіх на Захадзе аб тым, што пераход ад узброенага руху супраціву да палітычнай партыі павінен быць лінейным, павінна папярэднічаць адмова ад гвалту, павінна спрыяць грамадзянская супольнасць, а пасрэдніцтва ўмераных палітыкаў мае мала рэчаіснасці ў выпадку ісламскага руху супраціву (ХАМАС). Гэта не азначае, што ХАМАС не падвяргаўся палітычнай трансфармацыі: яно ёсць. Але гэта пераўтварэнне было дасягнута, нягледзячы на намаганні Захаду, а не садзейнічанне гэтым намаганням. Застаючыся рухам супраціву, ХАМАС стаў урадам Палестынскай аўтаноміі і змяніў сваю ваенную позу. Але гэтая трансфармацыя прыняла іншы курс, чым той, што акрэслены ў традыцыйных мадэлях дазволу канфліктаў. Хамас і іншыя ісламісцкія групоўкі працягваюць разглядаць сябе як руху супраціву, але яны ўсё часцей бачаць перспектыву таго, што іх арганізацыі могуць перарасці ў палітычныя плыні, якія арыентаваны на негвалтоўны супраціў. Стандартныя мадэлі дазволу канфліктаў у значнай ступені абапіраюцца на заходні вопыт урэгулявання канфліктаў і часта ігнаруюць адрозненні падыходаў у ісламскай гісторыі міратворчасці.. Нядзіўна, падыход ХАМАС да палітычных перамоваў па стылі адрозніваецца ад падыходу Захаду. Таксама, як ісламісцкі рух, які падзяляе больш шырокую аптыку ўздзеяння Захаду на іх грамадства, Хамас патрабуе сапраўднасці і законнасці ў межах сваёй выбарчай акругі, якія адбіваюцца на важнасці, якая надаецца падтрыманню ўзброенай здольнасці. Гэтыя фактары, разам з пераважным эфектам доўгатэрміновых канфліктаў на псіхалогію супольнасці (аспект, на які ўдзяляецца мала ўвагі заходнім мадэлям, які надае перавагу палітычнаму аналізу), мяркуе, што працэс трансфармацыі ХАМАС значна адрозніваўся ад трансфармацыі рухаў зброі пры традыцыйным аналізе. У дадатак, суровы ландшафт ізраільска-палестынскага канфлікту надае вопыту "Хамасу" свае асаблівыя характарыстыкі. Хамас знаходзіцца ў самым разгары важнай трансфармацыі, але палітычныя плыні ў Ізраілі, і ў межах рэгіёна, робяць вынік гэтай трансфармацыі непрадказальным. Шмат што будзе залежаць ад курсу заходняй палітыкі ("глабальная вайна з тэрорам") і як гэтая палітыка ўплывае на адраджэнскія ісламісцкія групоўкі, такія як ХАМАС, групы, прыхільныя выбарам, рэформы і добрае кіраванне.
ТАЙІП ЭРДАГАН - НОВЫ НАСЕР
У мінулы чацвер вечарам, Прэм'ер-міністр Турцыі Таіп Эрдаган раптам апынуўся ў цэнтры ўвагі ўсіх навінавых каналаў краіны. Прычынай было тое, што ён штурмаваў дыпламатычную сцэну на панэлі Сусветнага эканамічнага форуму ў Давосе, абвінаваціўшы прэзідэнта Ізраіля Шымона Перэса ў “забіваючы людзей,” і нагадваючы біблейскую запаведзь, “Не забівай.”
Гэта была не проста навіна для СМІ, але і музыка для вушэй мільёнаў туркаў, якія былі глыбока кранутыя нядаўнім кровапраліццем, якое Ізраіль выклікаў у сектары Газа. Некаторыя з іх нават выйшлі на вуліцы, каб вітаць Эрдагана, які вырашыў прыехаць у Стамбул адразу пасля напружаных дэбатаў. Тысячы аўтамабіляў накіраваліся ў аэрапорт Атацюрка сярод ночы, каб сустрэць “заваёўнік Давоса.
” «Турцыя ганарыцца вамі»
У мяне асабіста ў той момант была больш прыземленая праблема. Для таго, каб злавіць мой 5 раніцы. палёт, Я выйшаў з дому ў даволі разумны час, 2.30 раніцы. Але рух у аэрапорт быў цалкам заблакаваны з-за дзіўнай колькасці аўтамабіляў, якія накіроўваліся да яго. Дык вось, пасля выхаду з таксі на пачатку доўгай ракі транспартных сродкаў, Прыйшлося ісці па шашы каля двух кіламетраў, мае рукі на багажы і вочы на натоўп. Калі Эрдаган нарэшце выйшаў з тэрмінала, пакуль я проста ўваходзіў у яго, тысячы апладзіравалі яму і пачалі скандаваць, “Турцыя ганарыцца табой!”
Эскалацыя на Блізкім Усходзе: працяглы ўрон міру і дэмакратыі
Паола Кота
The rapid and dangerous escalation of war operations in the Middle East has resulted in a very significant loss of life among Lebanese, Palestinians and Israelis, and serious damage to civilian infrastructures. Major operations began with a low-level conflict around Gaza,that involved the launching of some missiles into Israel, some (more deadly) Israeli retaliation on Gaza, and the attack on an Israeli military post outside Gaza to which Israel reacted swiftly and very strongly. In the chain reaction that followed, admittedly Israel’ sintention was, and is, to inflict on the other side a far heavier punishment than that taken by Israel—which may appear as a militarily sound posture aimed at avoiding incidents andattacks, але, in fact, it is the civilian population that has been mainly affected. У выніку,the suffering of the Lebanese and Palestinian civilian populations (in terms of deaths,wounded and destroyed infrastructures) has to date been largely disproportionate to that of Israel. When, in the case of Palestine, this discrimination already follows about 40 years of discrimination in the same direction, hostility and adversarial relations are bound toincrease. So while Israel’s heavy deterrence through punishment may work temporarily and occasionally in preventing or reducing attacks, the general sentiment of hostility in the region is increased, and creates in the long range a bigger obstacle to peace.
Прымусовыя выбары
Regardless of what happens in future Palestinian parliamentaryelections, Hamas has already won a historic victory. The organization, whosename is an acronym for “the Islamic Resistance Movement,” enjoyed tremendoussuccess in municipal elections, and its readiness to participate onthe national level constitutes nothing less than an earthquake in Palestinianpolitics, signaling the clear end of one-party rule. For a movement that hasmorphed from a militant organization into a political party in less than a generation,Hamas’s participation on the national level is evidence of theorganization’s adaptability and durability within Palestinian society and politics.Among the United States, Ізраіль, and Europe, as well as Arab governments,speculation and uneasiness has surrounded Hamas’s newfound role.Skeptics argue that electoral politics do not make one democratic, and thatHamas’s electoral ambitions mask the group’s true intention of establishingan Islamic state in all of historic Palestine—a goal that includes Israel’s destruction.1 These critics believe that, once Hamas has secured its positionwithin the Palestinian Authority (PA) and institutions of the Palestine LiberationOrganization (пло), the movement will resume its campaign of terrorand attempt to control the Palestinian national agenda by force.Despite the inherent risks, proponents of expanding Hamas’s role in Palestiniannational politics argue that political activity will ultimately moderatethe movement. These advocates point to the fact that Hamas’s leadershave long called for transparent and accountable governing institutions andhave demonstrated political pragmatism, suggesting that the group could acceptless than its absolutist demands.
Гэта Палітыка, Дурны
John L. Эспазіта
US foreign policy and political Islam today are deeply intertwined. Every US president since Jimmy Carter has had to deal with political Islam; none has been so challenged as George W. буш. Policymakers, particularly since 9/11, have demonstrated an inability and/or unwillingness to distinguish between radical and moderate Islamists. They have largely treated political Islam as a global threat similar to the way that Communism was perceived. Аднак, even in the case of Communism, foreign policymakers eventually moved from an ill-informed, broad-brush, and paranoid approach personified by Senator Joseph McCarthy in the 1950s to more nuanced, pragmatic, and reasonable policies that led to the establishment of relations with China in the 1970s, even as tensions remained between the United States and the Soviet Union.
As Islamist parties continue to rise in prominence across the globe, it is necessary that policymakers learn to make distinctions and adopt differentiated policy approaches. This requires a deeper understanding of what motivates and informs Islamist parties and the support they receive, including the ways in which some US policies feed the more radical and extreme Islamist movements while weakening the appeal of the moderate organizations to Muslim populations. It also requires the political will to adopt approaches of engagement and dialogue. This is especially important where the roots of political Islam go deeper than simple anti-Americanism and where political Islam is manifested in non-violent and democratic ways. The stunning electoral victories of HAMAS in Palestine and the Shi’a in Iraq, the Muslim Brotherhood’s emergence as the leading parliamentary opposition in Egypt, and Israel’s war against HAMAS and Hizbollah go to the heart of issues of democracy, тэрарызм, and peace in the Middle East.
Global terrorism has also become the excuse for many Muslim autocratic rulers and Western policymakers to backslide or retreat from democratization. They warn that the promotion of a democratic process runs the risk of furthering Islamist inroads into centers of power and is counterproductive to Western interests, encouraging a more virulent anti-Westernism and increased instability. Такім чынам, напрыклад, despite HAMAS’ victory in free and democratic elections, the United States and Europe failed to give the party full recognition and support.
In relations between the West and the Muslim world, phrases like a clash of civilizations or a clash of cultures recur as does the charge that Islam is incompatible with democracy or that it is a particularly militant religion. But is the primary issue religion and culture or is it politics? Is the primary cause of radicalism and anti-Westernism, especially anti-Americanism, extremist theology or simply the policies of many Muslim and Western governments?
ХАМАС і палітычныя рэформы на Блізкім Усходзе
Пачынаецца суд над фондам Святой Зямлі
Абдус Саттар Газа
ліпеня 24, 2007 – The Holy Land Foundation for Relief and Development went on trial today in Dallas, Texas as the federal agents were raiding two other Muslim charities in Dearborn, Michigan. The Holy Land was being tried on suspicion of aiding terrorism by helping the Palestinian militant group Hamas while the two Michigan charities – the Goodwill Charitable Organization and Al-Mabarrat Charitable Organization were suspected of having ties to extremist groups in Lebanon. Just like the Holy Land, assets of the two Michigan charities have been frozen.
The Holy Land, founded in 1989 was one of the largest Muslim charities in the nation before it was shut down under executive orders in December 2001. It was one of six Muslim major charities in the country that have been shut in recent years as the Muslim charities were scrutinized and persecuted as part of a broader backlash against Muslims after the 9/11 напады. Other five shut down charities are: Global Relief Foundation, Benevolence International Foundation, Al-Haramain Islamic Foundation, Islamic American Relief Agency and Kind Hearts USA.
Under a provision of the U.S.A. Patriot Act, the government has largely unchecked power to designate any group as a terrorist organization. When that happens, a group’s property may be seized and its assets frozen. The charity is unable to see the government’s evidence and thus understand the basis for the charges. And it has only a limited right of appeal. Дык вось, the government can target a charity, obtain indictments against its leaders, and then delay a trial indefinitely.
The Bush administration froze the Holy Land Foundation’s assets charging it with funneling money to Hamas, an allegation strongly refuted by the Holy Land officials. According to its mission statement, the Foundation is a humanitarian organization that works to find “solutions to human suffering,” primarily focusing on providing urgent nutritional and medical care to the destitute and displaced Palestinian refugees in Jordan, Палестына, and Lebanon.
The government says Hamas’ support organization in the United States, known as the “Palestinian Committee,” organized the “Occupied Land Fund” у 1988. The name was later changed to the Holy Land Foundation. First based in California, the foundation moved to Richardson, Texas in 1992.
The defendants named in a 42-count indictment in 2004 are Holy Land Foundation, which federal authorities raided and shut down in December 2001; Shukri Abu Baker, the charity’s president; Ghassan Elashi, its chairman; Abdulrahman Odeh; Mohammad El-Mezain; and Mufid Abdulqader. Two other men named in the indictment remain fugitives.
This is the third trial involving Ghassan Elashi brothers. The court, because of the complexities of the investigation, decided to break the proceedings into three trials, with the one beginning today being the most expansive and the one directly related to the Holy Land Foundation. In summer 2004, five brothers who ran Infocom were convicted of selling computers to countries that support terrorism. У красавіку 2005, three of the brothers were convicted of conspiracy, money laundering and “dealing in the property of a terrorist.”
Перамога ХАМАС на выбарах у Палестыне
Riaz Hassan
The parliamentary election triumph of Hamas surprised almost everybody, including the Hamas leadership, if the press reported correctly. The Bush Administration is blaming its intelligence services for failing to predict Hamas’ victory. Most observers forecast that Fatah would win theelections because of its political dominance in Palestinian affairs. чаму, then, did most politicalobservers in the West get it so wrong? This political miscalculation will be the subject of much analysis and commentary in the coming months.A number of specific local issues delivered Hamas its historic electoral victory. Credit must goto the Palestinian people, who turned out to be astute voters. A significant number of Palestinians were simply unable to accept the corruption and cronyism that allegedly flourished under the Palestinian Authority led by Fatah. While most Palestinians remember well and admire the sacrifices made by Fatah leaders in the past, they were simply deterred by their in ability to institute political and economic reforms to better the lives of ordinary people. Hamashad a much better reading of the Palestinian political pulse. It was not difficult for Hamas to doso: Hamas delivers health, educational and social services to large numbers of Palestinians,making daily life bearable.Unlike Fatah, which had several candidates contesting the same constituency, resulting in asplitting of Fatah’s votes, Hamas ran an extremely disciplined political campaign. Hamas alsomade use of its female supporters, sending them door-to-door to canvass voters and to pollingstations to campaign for Hamas’ candidates. These election strategies obviously worked in Hamas’ favor. Hamas has also amassed political capital through its resistance and military campaigns against the Israeli occupation. It was these actions which led to Hamas’ being labelled and treated as a terrorist organization by the United States, the European Union andseveral other western countries. In a political environment in which ordinary Palestinians feelcompletely powerless, Hamas’ acts of resistance and tough rhetoric gave Palestinians a senseof empowerment that may well be the reason for its electoral victory over its opponents.
Палітычныя пераходы ў арабскім свеце
у Шехате
Год 2007 азнаменаваў канец кароткага перыяду палітычнай лібералізацыі ў арабскім свеце, які пачаўся неўзабаве пасля акупацыі Ірака і які быў галоўным вынікам знешняга ціску на арабскія рэжымы з мэтай рэфармавання і дэмакратызацыі. Знешні ціск падчас ст 2003-2006 перыяд стварыў палітычную адкрытасць, якую актывісты ва ўсім рэгіёне выкарыстоўвалі для настойвання на даўнія патрабаванні палітычнай і канстытуцыйнай рэформы. Сутыкнуўшыся з спалучэннем росту знешняга і ўнутранага ціску на рэформы, Арабскія рэжымы былі вымушаны пайсці на некаторыя ўступкі сваім супернікам.У Егіпце, па даручэнні прэзідэнта, Парламент прыняў папраўку да канстытуцыі, якая дазваляе праводзіць прэзідэнцкія выбары наўпрост. У верасні 2005г, У Егіпце адбыліся першыя канкурэнтныя прэзідэнцкія выбары ў гісторыі, і, як і чакалася, Мубарак быў абраны на пяты тэрмін з 87% галасоў. Прычым,на працягу лістапада 2005 парламенцкія выбары,якія былі больш свабоднымі, чым папярэднія выбары, Браты-мусульмане, найбуйнейшы апазіцыйны рух у Егіпце, перамог 88 месцы. Гэта была самая вялікая колькасць месцаў, атрыманых апазіцыяй у Егіпце з тых часоў 1952 рэвалюцыі.Аналагічным чынам, у студзені 2006 Парламенцкія выбары ў Палестыне, ХАМАС атрымаў большасць месцаў. Такім чынам ХАМАС здолеў усталяваць кантроль над Палестынскім заканадаўчым саветам, у якім дамінаваў ФАТХ з моманту стварэння Палестынскай аўтаноміі ў 1996. У Ліване, пасля забойства Рафіка Харыры 14 лютага 2005 г., кааліцыя палітычных сілаў, якія падтрымліваюць Харыры, змагла шляхам шырокай масавай мабілізацыі і зьнешняй падтрымкі прымусіць сырыйскія войскі вывесьці зь Лібану, а прасырыйскі ўрад сысьці ў адстаўку. Прайшлі выбары, і кааліцыя 14 лютага змагла атрымаць большасць галасоў і сфармаваць новы ўрад. У Марока, Кароль Махамед VI кіраваў стварэннем камітэта праўды і прымірэння, які імкнуўся разглядаць скаргі тых, хто падвяргаўся гвалту падчас праўлення яго бацькі.Краіны Савета супрацоўніцтва краін Персідскага заліва (GCC) таксама былі праведзены некаторыя важныя рэформы падчас 2003-2006 перыяд. У 2003 Катар упершыню ў сваёй гісторыі прыняў пісьмовую канстытуцыю. У 2005 годзе ў Саудаўскай Аравіі ўпершыню за пяць дзесяцігоддзяў адбыліся муніцыпальныя выбары. І ў 2006, У Бахрэйне адбыліся парламенцкія выбары, на якіх шыіцкае грамадства Аль-Вефак атрымала 40% месцаў. Пасля, быў прызначаны першы шыіцкі намеснік прэм'ер-міністра ў Бахрэйне. Гэтыя падзеі, якая атрымала назву «арабская вясна».,» прымусілі некаторых аптымістаў паверыць, што арабскі свет знаходзіцца на парозе дэмакратычных пераўтварэнняў, падобных да тых, што адбыліся ў Лацінскай Амерыцы, Усходняй і Цэнтральнай Еўропе ў 1980-я і 1990-я гады.. Аднак, у 2007, калі палітычная лібералізацыя саступіла месца ўзмацненню палярызацыі і аднаўленню рэпрэсій,гэтыя надзеі развеяліся. Няспраўнасць праёмаў ст 2003-2006 перыяд для стварэння ўстойлівага імпульсу да дэмакратызацыі можа быць абумоўлены шэрагам фактараў. Пагаршэнне сітуацыі з бяспекай у Іраку і няздольнасць Злучаных Штатаў стварыць стабільны і дэмакратычны рэжым аслабілі падтрымку намаганняў па прасоўванні дэмакратыі ў амерыканскай адміністрацыі і ўмацавалі погляды тых, хто лічыў, што бяспека і стабільнасць павінны стаяць перад дэмакратыяй. Прычым, Поспехі ісламістаў на выбарах у Егіпце і Палестыне яшчэ больш аслабілі падтрымку Захадам намаганняў па прасоўванні дэмакратыі ў рэгіёне, паколькі прынцыпы гэтых рухаў лічыліся супярэчнымі інтарэсам Захаду.
Выклікі дэмакратыі ў арабскім і мусульманскім свеце
Алон Бэн-Мэір
President Bush’s notions that democratizing Iraq will have a ripple effect on the rest ofthe Arab world, bringing prosperity and peace to the region, and that democracy is the panaceafor Islamic terrorism are unsubstantiated as well as grossly misleading. Even a cursory review of the Arab political landscape indicates that the rise of democracy will not automatically translateinto the establishment of enduring liberal democracies or undermine terrorism in the region. Thesame conclusion may be generally made for the Muslim political landscape. На самай справе, given theopportunity to compete freely and fairly in elections, Islamic extremist organizations will mostlikely emerge triumphant. In the recent elections in Lebanon and Egypt, Hezbollah and the Muslim Brotherhood respectively, won substantial gains, and in Palestine Hamas won thenational Parliamentary elections handedly. That they did so is both a vivid example of the today’spolitical realities and an indicator of future trends. And if current sentiments in the Arab statesoffer a guide, any government formed by elected Islamist political parties will be more antagonistic to the West than the authoritarian regimes still in power. У дадатак, there are noindications that democracy is a prerequisite to defeating terrorism or any empirical data tosupport the claim of linkage between existing authoritarian regimes and terrorism.
У&М Прагрэсіўны
Accepting the Responsibility of Electoral Choice
The development of democratic institutions comes with negative externalities. As a political progressive, I believe that the big picture – establishing a solid democratic foundation – outweighs the possible emergence of political parties that may advocate religious or gender intolerance. I am a firm believer in the workings of the democratic process. While I have been studying in Egypt for the semester, I am reminded that despite the imperfections of the United States democratic system, it is still many times better than living under any authoritarian regime that outlaws political parties and posts military police at a variety of locations in an effort to exert control and maintain power.
У Егіпце, the electoral process is not democratic. The National Political Party – the party of President Mubarak – exerts tremendous influence in the country. Яе галоўная апазіцыя - "Браты-мусульмане"., які быў створаны ў в 1928 Хасан аль-Бана. Браты-мусульмане грунтуюцца на вельмі строгай інтэрпрэтацыі Карана і ідэі, што свецкія ўрады з'яўляюцца прамым парушэннем вучэння Карана. Партыя мае вельмі жорсткае мінулае; ён нясе непасрэдную адказнасць за некалькі замахаў і забойства егіпецкага лідэра Анвар-ас-Садат у 1981.
Браты-мусульмане - нелегальная палітычная партыя. Бо палітычная партыя рэлігійная, гэта не дазваляецца ўдзельнічаць у публічнай сферы ў адпаведнасці з егіпецкім заканадаўствам. Нягледзячы на гэтую тэхнічнасць, партыя мае дэпутатаў у парламенце Егіпта. Аднак, парламентарыі не могуць афіцыйна заявіць аб сваёй прыналежнасці да Братоў-мусульман, але замест гэтага называюць сябе незалежнымі. Хаця партыя застаецца нелегальнай, яна застаецца самай магутнай апазіцыяй да кіруючай Нацыянальнай дэмакратычнай партыі.
Прыцягненне ісламістаў і прасоўванне дэмакратыі
Mona Yacoubian
Deeming democratic change to be a long-term antidote to Islamist extremism, the Bush administration coupled its military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq with intensified efforts to promote democracy in the Arab world, underscoring the need for free and fair elections. To date, parliamentary elections of varying openness have taken place across the region, from Morocco to Kuwait. The elections ushered in a wave of Islamist victories, dubbed by many as an “Islamist tsunami.” 1The Islamists’ successes stem from their effectiveness as vehicles for popular opposition. While liberal, secular opposition parties remain largely detached from much of the population, Islamists have developed vast and easily mobilized grassroots networks through charitable organizations and mosques. The leadership is often younger and more dynamic, with strong ties to the community, and the party organizations brim with energy and ideas, attracting those who are seeking change.The U.S. government has quietly engaged a number of moderate and legal Islamist parties across the region for several years, sometimes through normal diplomatic activity, sometimes through government-funded grants to U.S. organizations. This Special Report examines U.S.-funded engagement with legal, nonviolent Islamist parties through the National Democratic Institute (NDI) and the International Republican Institute (IRI), which have the most extensive experience engaging with Islamists in the region, and focuses on Morocco, Іарданія, і Емен, because of their relative political openness and the strength and vibrancy of their Islamist political opposition.Successful Strategy. A successful Islamist engagement strategy both empowers individuals and strengthens institutions to yield greater transparency, more accountability, and shifts toward moderation. Training and empowering individuals cultivates moderates within the parties and enhances their political sophistication and influence. Тым часам, as regimes in the Arab world resist or manipulate political reforms, strengthening democracy’s infrastructure is as important as supporting individuals. Independent electoral procedures and monitoring help to establish free and fair elections. Institution building ensures appropriate checks on executive power and a strong rule of law. Strengthening parliaments is especially crucial, as Islamists participate primarily in legislatures.In assessing whether Islamist parties have moderated in response to U.S. engagement, it is difficult if not impossible to quantify or measure shifts that may themselves be relative and subjective. Directly linking greater moderation to specific U.S. engagement activities is also highly problematic. At best, this engagement should be considered a contributing factor. Тым не менш, the tentative results in Morocco, Іарданія, and Yemen are promising enough that continued engagement with moderate Islamists should be encouraged, albeit with greater emphasis on institution building and an eye on the broader context of the ideological battle in the Muslim world between extremism and moderation.
Іслам, Палітычны іслам і Амерыка
although the factors accounting for the deterioration of America’s reputationin the Arab and Muslim world after Sept. 11 are numerous, ЗША. positionvis-à-vis political Islam remains an important factor in reinforcing the negativeview of America. An important issue that has driven much of the anti-Americanismwe observe in the region today pertains to an evident contradiction between U.S.discourse on democratization and political reform on one hand, and its negativeresponse to the electoral gains made by groups like Hamas in the Palestinian Territoriesor the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt. As a result of this discrepancy, manyobservers have proposed alternative ways for Washington to advance the cause ofdemocracy in the Arab world. One of the proposed ideas involves holding-off oncalling for immediate elections, and focusing instead on promoting other prerequisitesof political reform. Others suggested employing new strategies that wouldguarantee the defeat of political Islamists at ballot boxes.Undoubtedly, there is a soaring need for a better understanding of Islamistmovements in the region, given the fundamental differences among such groups.Moreover, many Islamist movements are experiencing a process of change thatwarrants a revision of the existing conventional wisdom about political Islam. Notonly that, but many of those groups remain unknown in Western, particularlyAmerican, discussions of Islamist movements. Таму, formulating a constructiveand effective American policy toward Islam in a broad sense, but more specificallytoward political Islam, will require a new and a more nuanced intellectualmapping of contemporary Islam and political Islam in the region.Given these various demands, the editorial team of Arab Insight took the initiativeto shed light on the topic of American policies toward both Islam and politicalIslam. The topic is presented in two sections:Section I presents several Arab responses to American policy toward Islamists.
Егіпет: Перадгісторыя і ЗША. Адносіны
Джэрэмі M. дыез
In the last year, Egyptian foreign policy, particularly its relationship with the United States, hasbenefitted substantially from both a change in U.S. policy and from events on the ground. TheObama Administration, as evident in the President’s June 2009 speech in Cairo, has elevatedEgypt’s importance to U.S. foreign policy in the region, as U.S. policymakers work to revive theArab-Israeli peace process. In choosing Cairo as a venue for the President’s signature address tothe Muslim world, Egyptians feel that the United States has shown their country respectcommensurate with its perceived stature in the Arab world.At the same time, continuing tensions with Iran and Hamas have bolstered Egypt’s position as amoderating force in the region and demonstrated the country’s diplomatic utility to U.S. foreignpolicy. Based on its own interests, Egypt has opposed Iranian meddling in the Levant and in Gazaand has recently expanded military cooperation with Israel in order to demonstrate resolve againstfurther Iranian provocations, such as arming Hamas or allowing Hezbollah to operate on Egyptiansoil. Акрамя таго, Israel’s Operation Cast Lead (снежні 2008 to January 2009) highlighted theneed to moderate Hamas’s behavior, attain Palestinian unity, and reach a long-term Israel-Hamascease-fire/prisoner exchange, goals which Egypt has been working toward, albeit with limitedsuccess so far.Indications of an improved bilateral relationship have been clearly evident. Over the last sixmonths, there has been a flurry of diplomatic exchanges, culminating in President Obama’s June2009 visit to Egypt and Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak’s trip to Washington in August 2009,his first visit to the United States in over five years. Following President Obama’s June visit, thetwo governments held their annual strategic dialogue. Several months earlier, the United Statespledged to expand trade and investment in Egypt.Despite the appearance of a more positive atmosphere, inherent tensions and contradictions inU.S.-Egyptian relations remain. For U.S. policymakers and Members of Congress, the question ofhow to simultaneously maintain the U.S.-Egyptian strategic relationship born out of the CampDavid Accords and the 1979 peace treaty while promoting human rights and democracy in Egyptis a major challenge with no clear path. As Egyptian opposition figures have grown more vocal inrecent years over issues such as leadership succession, corruption, and economic inequality, andthe regime has subsequently grown more repressive in its response to increased calls for reform,activists have demanded that the United States pressure Egypt to create more breathing space fordissent. The Egyptian government has resisted any U.S. attempts to interfere in its domesticpolitics and has responded harshly to overt U.S. calls for political reform. Адначасова, as theIsraeli-Palestinian situation has further deteriorated, Egypt’s role as a mediator has provedinvaluable to U.S. foreign policy in the region. Egypt has secured cease-fire agreements andmediated negotiations with Hamas over prisoner releases, cease-fire arrangements, and otherissues. Since Hamas is a U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) and calls forIsrael’s destruction, neither Israel nor the United States government directly negotiates with itsofficials, using Egypt instead as a go-between. With the Obama Administration committed topursuing Middle East peace, there is concern that U.S. officials may give a higher priority toEgypt’s regional role at the expense of human rights and democratic reforms.